Friday, 27 March 2015

27th March

THE CONFLICT FOR MALTA, 1798 – 1802

By Dale Pappas

The Knights of St. John in Malta and Tsar Paul I
The Order of St. John of Jerusalem was established in roughly 1070 to protect Christians in the Holy Land.  The Knights Hospitallers, as they are known, moved to the island of Cyprus in 1291 and later Rhodes in 1309.  The hospitallers were once mounted knights, but turned to the sea when they arrived in the island of Rhodes.[1]  However, after repeated attacks, Rhodes fell to the Ottomans.  The knights found a more permanent home in 1530 when the Holy Roman emperor, Charles V, bestowed the southern Mediterranean island of Malta to the Order.[2]  The knights’ maritime prowess led to a period of economic prosperity.  Thirty-five years later, the knights repulsed invading Turkish forces in what would become known as the Great Siege of Malta.  The island emerged as a well-fortified stronghold which would remain in the hands of the knights until the French invasion in 1798.
The power of the knights had declined significantly by the dawn of the eighteenth century.  The majority of the members by this time were French, although there were also Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, German, and Anglo-Bavarian knights under the leadership of a Grand Master.  The final Grand Master of Malta, Ferdinand von Hompesch was elected in 1797.[3]  Unfortunately for Grand Master von Hompesch, the Order was in a difficult situation when he took his post.  During the French Revolution in 1792, the Order’s property in France was confiscated by the revolutionary government, which caused financial trouble for the knights.[4]  The Maltese people also became weary of the Order’s rule of the island.  Desperate for assistance, the knights looked to the Russian empire and the tsar, Paul I.
While Grand Duke, Tsar Paul I had developed an interest in the Catholic Church and also the Order of St. John.  He was greatly intrigued by the knights and entertained the idea of becoming the Grand Master himself.  Fortunately for Paul, the Order and Russia enjoyed improved relations from 1796.  On 10 December 1797 the Russian Tsar became “Protector of the Order of Malta .”[5]  The Tsar would later be awarded the title of Grand Master.  In the end, the knights’ decision to accept the Tsar’s patronage ended badly for both sides.  The French used the Russian alliance as cause to invade Malta and end the Order’s tenure on the island.  Tsar Paul’s unstable and often confusing foreign policy contributed to his downfall and murder in 1801.
The French Period 1798 – 1800
Napoleon devised an expedition to seize Egypt from a weakened Ottoman empire and also threaten Britain ’s hold on India .  The French foreign minister, Talleyrand, supported the idea of a Middle Eastern campaign, which began in the spring of 1798.  Napoleon decided to send spies to Malta to report the condition of the knights.  Reports from these spies led Napoleon to reason that the knights would not put up a great resistance in the event of an attack.  The French also realized Malta ’s strategic importance, as it made for an ideal post in which to conduct operations against the British navy in the Mediterranean.
A force of over 30,000 Frenchman which had sailed from Toulon, Corsica, Genoa, and Civitta Vecchia arrived off of Malta on 9 June.[6]  The majority of the roughly 300 knights were elderly, which resulted in a poor defense of the island.[7]  Also, the local militias were poorly trained and terrified at the prospect of engaging the French.  Napoleon wasted little time once his fleet arrived off of the island.  Two brigades commanded by future marshals Marmont and Lannes under General Charles Henri Vaubois landed near Valetta, the capital of the island.  Vaubois’ column quickly dispersed the Regiment of Malta, who retreated towards Valetta.  Meanwhile, General Louis Charles Desaix landed and defeated another body of Maltese troops.  A third column under General Jean Louis Ebénézer Reynier captured the neighboring island of Gozo after he promised to do the locals no harm.[8]
The arrival of the French caused widespread panic in the streets of Valetta.  Several knights were killed by a mob after rumors had spread of the island’s surrender.  As all of this chaos raged within the walls of the city, the Grand Master remained indecisively in his palace.[9]  Finally, the knights came to terms on 11 June, surrendering the island to the French.[10]  The Order’s tenure on the island had met a dishonorable end.
Grand Master von Hompesch was exiled to Trieste, while the other knights were ordered to abandon the island shortly after.  The French would gain considerable wealth from their expedition to Malta ; however, the treasure would be lost during the disastrous battle of the Nile.  Vaubois was left in command of the island when the force departed for Egypt several days later.
Vaubois was uncertain if his position on the island was tenable because of the lack of necessities.  A British fleet also loomed after Nelson’s annihilation of the French frigates in the battle of the Nile.  Shortly afterward, Naples stopped all trade with Malta , seriously limiting the possibilities of receiving provisions.  The Maltese themselves were beginning to pose a threat to French control of the island.
The local population voiced their anger on several matters, including some religious reforms brought by the French.  The attempted seizure of a convent in the town of Notabile by the French led to an uprising.  The French garrison in Notabile attempted to hold off the mob but it was soon overrun.  The mob slaughtered the entire garrison after the town fell in their hands.  Vaubois answered by reinforcing the garrisons of several important cities on the island but the Maltese insurrection had begun. 
Emmanuel Vitale emerged as the leader of the movement.  Vitale established a junta by agreeing to share power with a member of the current administration named Francesco Saverio Caruana.[11]  The leaders of the insurrection appealed to the King of Naples for aid, as the irregular Maltese forces could not expect to defeat the French troops on the island.  However, King Ferdinand was hesitant to send aid while his Neapolitan kingdom was threatened by the French.  Despite the absence of foreign support, the Maltese continued to harass the French, whose supplies dwindled daily.
Neither the Maltese nor the French could inflict serious damage on the other for several months.  Meanwhile, several members of the Second Coalition including Britain , Naples, and Russia began to consider who would control Malta once the French were expelled. The British were opposed to Russia ’s presence in the Mediterranean because of Russian Tsar’s hostility.  Tsar Paul was dissatisfied with the British because the knights’ sovereignty on the island was still in question. 
In late 1799, Brigadier General Thomas Graham was dispatched to Malta as commander of the forces besieging Valetta.[12]  However, the allied forces in the Mediterranean were in a state of disarray.  The British and the Russians were still at odds over the administration of Malta . While the allies quarreled over Malta , the French under Vaubois remained pinned in their defenses with limited supplies and little hope of escape as enemy frigates blockaded the island. Unfortunately for Vaubois, the disorganization of the forces would not deter his enemies from succeeding in the capture of Malta .
British-Controlled Malta , 1800 – 1802
After their exile from Malta , many of the knights once again turned to Russia for protection.  Paul was quick to welcome those who wished to stay in Russia while examining the situation in Malta .  Russia entered into an alliance with the Ottomans in 1798 and captured the Greek island of Corfu from the French in November.  Despite the presence of a Russo-Turkish fleet in the Mediterranean, Paul made no effort to seize Malta .  The Tsar planned to withdraw from the Second Coalition after a dispute with the allies. 
Fortunately for the British, Russia ’s withdrawal from the Mediterranean and the Second Coalition opened the door for the conquest of Malta .  On 5 September 1800, Vaubois surrendered the island to the British.  The British governed the island through a rear admiral and later a general until 1813.  The military officials were unable to manage the island effectively and became unpopular with the Maltese.[13]  However, the Maltese came to tolerate the British because of economic improvements during the Napoleonic Wars.
The British lost another ally in the Mediterranean as the Neapolitans made peace with the French, and by doing so were forced to close their ports to English goods.  Russia began to negotiate with the French, especially after Napoleon’s victory at Marengo in June of 1800.  Tsar Paul closed Russia ’s ports to British merchants in protest over the administration of Malta .  The tsar had become so disgusted with Britain that shortly before his murder in March of 1801, the Russians had contacted Napoleon with plans of a Franco-Russian invasion of the Middle East.[14]
Despite the fact that Tsar Alexander I declared to protect the knights, Russia had lost interest in their restoration in Malta .[15]  Britain and Russia came to terms concerning the island and agreed that Malta would remain a British naval base.  The peace of Amiens in 1802 called for the knights’ restoration in Malta and neighboring Gozo but the British and the Russians argued that Napoleon’s appointment as president of a new Italian Republic among other things violated the terms of the agreement.  The British resolved to retain Malta , which was one of the factors that led to war with France in the spring of 1803.  Malta remained in British hands throughout the Napoleonic Wars and continued to serve as a strategic naval base into the 20th Century until obtaining independence.
Bibliography
Bradford, Ernle.  The Shield and the Sword.  New York: E.P. Dutton, 1973.
Cavaliero, Roderick.  The Last of the Crusaders.  London: Hollis and Carter, 1960.
Cohen, Reuben.  Knights of Malta 1523-1798.  London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920.
Gregory, Desmond. Malta , Britain , and the European Powers 1793-1815.  Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. 
Herold, J. Christopher.  The Age of Napoleon.  New York: American Heritage Publishing Co., 1963.
Marshall-Cornwall, James.  Napoleon as Military Commander.  New York: Penguin Books, 2002.
Porter, Whitfield. A History of the Knights of Malta .  London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1883.
Ryan, Frederick W.  The House of the Temple.  London: Burns Oates and Washbourne Limited, 1930.
Vella, Andrew P.  Malta and the Czars.  Valletta, Malta :  Royal University of Malta , 1972.
Notes:
[1] Cohen, Reuben.  Knights of Malta 1523-1798.  London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920. Pg. 6
[2] Bradford, Ernle.  The Shield and the Sword. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1973. Pgs. 122-123.
[3] Porter, Whitworth. A History of the Knights of Malta .  London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1883. Pg. 647.
[4] Ryan, Frederick W. The House of the Temple. London: Burns Oates and Washbourne Limited, 1930. Pg. 208.
[5] Vella, Andrew P.  Malta and the Czars.  Valletta, Malta : Royal University of Malta , 1972. Pg. 26.
[6] Marshall-Cornwall, James.  Napoleon as Military Commander. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. Pg. 82.
[7] Porter; Pg. 648.
[8] Cavaliero, Roderick.  The Last of the Crusaders.  London: Hollis and Carter, 1960. Pgs. 224-225.
[9] Cohen; Pg. 55.
[10]Bradford; Pg. 214.
[11] Cavaliero; Pg. 246.
[12] Ibid; Pg. 253.
[13] Gregory, Desmond.  Malta, Britain, and the European Powers 1793-1815.  Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh   Dickinson University Press, 1996. Pgs. 13-14.
[14] Herold, J. Christopher.  The Age of Napoleon.  New York: American Heritage Publishing Co., 1963. Pg. 317.
[15] Bradford;  Pg. 218.

Placed on the Napoleon Series: December 2008


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Friday, March 27, 2015

31st March 1504 - 28th March 1552 Guru Angad 

Guru Angad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Guru Angad
ਗੁਰੂ ਅੰਗਦ
Guru Angad.jpg
BornBhai Lehna
March 31, 1504
Matte Di Sarai, Muktsar,Punjab, India
DiedMarch 28, 1552 (aged 47)
Khadur Sahib, India
Other namesThe Second Master
Years active1539–1552
Known forPopularizing the GurmukhiScript
PredecessorGuru Nanak
SuccessorGuru Amar Das
Spouse(s)Mata Khivi
ChildrenBaba Dasu, Baba Dattu, Bibi Amro, and Bibi Anokhi
Parent(s)Mata Sabharee (Daya Kaur) and Baba Pheru Mal
Guru Angad (31 March 1504 – 28 March 1552) was the second of the ten Sikh Gurus. He was born in the village of Sarae Naga in Muktsar District in Punjab on 31 March 1504. The name Lehna was given shortly after his birth as was the custom of his Hindu parents. He was the son of a small but successful trader named Pheru Mal. His mother's name was Mata Ramo (also known as Mata Sabhirai, Mansa Devi and Daya Kaur). Baba Narayan Das Trehan was the Guru's Grandfather, whose ancestral house was at Matte-di-Sarai near Muktsar.
In 1538, Guru Nanak chose Lehna—his disciple—to be his successor as Sikhism's Guru, rather than one of his sons.[1] Lehna was then given the name Angad and designated as Guru Angad, becoming the second guru of the Sikhs. He continued on the work started by the first Sikh Guru.
Guru Angad married Mata Khivi in January 1520 and had two sons (Dasu and Datu) and two daughters (Amro and Anokhi). The entire family of his father had left their ancestral village in fear of the invasion of Babar's armies. After this the family settled at Khadur Sahib, a village by the River Beas near what is now Tarn Taran a small town about 25 km from the city of Amritsar, the holiest of Sikh cities.

Devotion and service to Guru Nanak[edit]

One day, Bhai Lehna heard the recitation of a hymn of Guru Nanak from Bhai Jodha a neighbour who was a follower of the Guru. His mind was captured by the tune and while on his annual pilgrimage to JawalamukhiTemple he asked his group if they would mind going to see the Guru. Everyone thought this most inappropriate and refused. Not one to shirk his responsibilities, he was after all the guide and leader of the group, he couldn't abandon them with thieves along the way. But man of honor and dharma that he was, the poems and prayers (kirtan) of Guru Nanak still held onto his every thought. So one night without telling anyone he mounted his horse and proceeded to the village now known as Kartarpur (God's city) to visit with Guru Nanak. Upon receiving directions to the Guru, Bhai Lehna found a number of people working on a field. Bhai Lehna did not recognize the Guru as he looked just like the ordinary field workers, and asked Guru Nanak if he could take him to the Guru. Guru Nanak agreed and took the saddle strings of the horse while Bhai Lehna sat upon the horse comfortably. After some time the Guru reached his home and told Bhai Lehna to sit down whilst he went to get the Guru; when the Guru returned, this time after freshening up, Bhai Lehna realized instantly what a huge mistake he had made. He had several thoughts going through his head about what a huge sin he had committed by making the Guru pull him and his horse home whilst he sat upon the horse comfortably. His face at once dropped and Guru smiled, he asked what is your name, Bhai replied 'Bhai Lehna'. The Guru then replied: 'don't worry when someone comes to take something they would come as you have' (as Lehna means to take something) 'if you give me the strings of your mind as you did with the horse saddles and let me direct you, you will be amazed... '
Bhai Lehna displayed deep and loyal service to Guru Nanak. Several stories display how Bhai Lehna was chosen over the Guru's sons as his successor. One of these stories is about a jug which fell into mud. Guru Nanak's sons would not pick it up; Sri Chand, the older, refused on the grounds that the filth would pollute him, and Lakshmi Chand, the younger, objected because the task was too menial for the son of a Guru. Bhai Lehna, however, picked it out of the mud, washed it clean, and presented it to Guru Nanak full of water.[2] A different version of this story counts this as a key part of Guru Nanak deciding upon Bhai Lehna for his successor. The Guru's wife, Mata, said to Nanak "My Lord, keep my sons in mind," meaning that she wished them to be the ones considered for succession to the guruship. Guru ordered them to come, and he threw a bowl into a tank of muddy water. The Guru ordered them to retrieve it for him, and both of them refused to do it. Guru Nanak then asked Bhai Lehna to retrieve it, and Bhai Lehna promptly complied.[3] In one instance, the Guru orders a wall of his house, which had fallen down, to be repaired. His sons refused to fix it immediately because of the storm that had knocked it down, and the lateness of morning. Guru Nanak said that he needed no masons while he had his Sikhs, and ordered them to repair it. Bhai Lehna started to repair the wall, but Nanak claimed that it was crooked when he was finished, and ordered him to knock it down and build it again. Bhai Lehna complied, and Nanak still claimed the wall was not straight. The Guru ordered him to attempt it a third time. At this, the Guru's sons called Bhai Lehna a fool for putting up with such unreasonable orders. Bhai Lehna simply replied that a servant's hands should be busy doing his master's work.[4] Yet another anecdote exists where Guru Nanak asks his Sikhs and his sons to carry three bundles of grass for his cows and buffaloes, and, as with the other examples, his sons and his followers failed to show loyalty. Bhai Lehna, however, immediately asked to be tasked with carrying the bundles, which were wet and muddy. When Bhai Lehna and the Guru arrived at the Guru's house, the Guru's wife complained at Guru Nanak's terrible treatment of a guest, noting how his clothes were covered from head to foot with mud. Guru Nanak then replied to her, "This is not mud; it is the saffron of God's court, which marketh the elect." Upon another inspection, the Guru's wife saw that Bhai Lehna's clothes had, indeed, changed into saffron. To this day, Sikhs consider the three bundles as important symbols of spiritual affairs, temporal affairs, and the Guruship.[5] In one of the most significant stories, Guru Nanak travels through the forest with his disciples. The Guru made gold and silver coins appear in front of the group, and all but two followers ran to pick them up: Bhai Lehna and Bhai Buddha. Guru Nanak led them both to a funeral pyre, and ordered them to eat the corpse that was hidden under a shroud. Bhai Buddha started thinking, but Bhai Lehna obeyed. When he lifted the shroud, he found the Guru Nanak himself underneath it.[2] In a different version of this story, Bhai Lehna is met with Parshad (sacred food) instead of Guru Nanak. Bhai Lehna offers the Parshad to the Guru, satisfied to eat of the leavings. Guru Nanak, after this test, reveals the Japuji to Bhai Lehna, proclaims Bhai Lehna is of his own image, and promises that Bhai Lehna shall be the next Guru.[6]
Guru Nanak had touched him and renamed him Angad (part of the body) or the second Nanak on 7 September 1539. Before becoming the new Guru he had spent six or seven years in the service of Guru Nanak at Kartarpur.
After the death of Guru Nanak on 22 September 1539, Guru Angad left Kartarpur for the village of Khadur Sahib (near Goindwal Sahib). He carried forward the principles of Guru Nanak both in letter and spirit. Yogis and Saints of different sects visited him and held detailed discussions about Sikhi with him.

Guru Angad (1539–1552)[edit]

Guru Angad popularized the present form of the Gurmukhi script. It became the medium of writing the Punjabi language in which the hymns of the Gurus are expressed. This step had a far-reaching purpose and impact. First, it gave the people who spoke this language an identity of their own, enabling them to express their thought directly and without any difficulty or transliteration.
Earlier, the Punjabi language was written in the Landa or Mahajani script. This had no vowel sounds, which had to be imagined or construed by the reader in order to decipher the writing. Therefore, there was the need of a script which could faithfully reproduce the hymns of the Gurus so that the true meaning and message of the Gurus could not be misconstrued and misinterpreted by each reader to suit his own purpose and prejudices. The devising of the Gurmukhi script was an essential step in order to maintain the purity of the doctrine and exclude all possibility of misunderstanding and misconstruction by interested persons.
The institution of the langar was maintained and developed. The Guru's wife personally worked in the kitchen. She also served food to the members of the community and the visitors. Her devotion to this institution finds mention in the Guru Granth Sahib.
The Guru earned his own living by twisting coarse grass into strings used for cots. All offerings went to the common fund. This demonstrates that it is necessary and honorable to do even the meanest productive work. It also emphasizes that parasitical living is not in consonance with the mystic and moral path. In line with Guru Nanak's teaching, the Guru also declared that there was no place for passive recluses in the community.
Like Guru Nanak, Guru Angad and the subsequent Gurus selected and appointed their successors by completely satisfying themselves about their mystic fitness and capacity to discharge the responsibilities of the mission.

Community work[edit]

Gurmukhi alphabetic excluding vowels.
Guru Angad is credited with introducing a new alphabet known as Gurmukhi script that he made in Khadur Sahib, modifying the old Punjabi script's characters. There is evidence, however, that this was not the case: one hymn written in acrostic form by Guru Nanak gives proof that the alphabet already existed.[7] Soon, this script became very popular and started to be used by the people in general. He took great interest in the education of children by opening many schools for their instruction and thus increased the number of literate people. For the youth he started the tradition of Mall Akhara, where physical as well as spiritual exercises were held. He collected the facts about Guru Nanak's life from Bhai Bala and wrote the first biography of Guru Nanak. He also wrote 63 Saloks (stanzas), which are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. He popularised and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar (the Guru's communal kitchen) that had been started by Guru Nanak.
Guru Angad travelled widely and visited all important religious places and centres established by Guru Nanak for the preaching of Sikhi. He also established hundreds of new centres of Sikhi and thus strengthened its base. The period of his Guruship was the most crucial one. The Sikh community had moved from having a founder to a succession of Gurus and the infrastructure of Sikh society was strengthened and crystallised – from being an infant, Sikhi had moved to being a young child, ready to face the dangers that were around. During this phase, Sikhi established its own separate religious identity.

Death and successor[edit]

Guru Angad, following the example set by Guru Nanak, nominated Guru Amar Das as his successor (The Third Nanak) before his death. He presented all the holy scripts, including those he received from Guru Nanak, to Guru Amar Das. He died on 29 March 1552 at the age of forty-seven. It is said that he started to build a new town, at Goindwal near Khadur Sahib and Guru Amar Das was appointed to supervise its construction. It is also said that the deposed Mughal Emperor Humayun (Babar's son), while being pursued by Sher Shah Suri, came to obtain the blessings of Guru Angad in regaining the throne of Delhi.

See also[edit]

Guru Angad - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru_Angad
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    1 Devotion and service to Guru Nanak; 2 Guru Angad (1539–1552) .... DiscoverSikhism - Sri Guru Angad Dev Ji Sri Guru Angad Dev Ji is second of the Ten Sikh ...
    ‎Devotion and service to Guru Nanak - ‎Guru Angad (1539–1552) - ‎Community work

** Today in Indian History Events for March 27 27-March ...

  1. https://plus.google.com/.../2gj...
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    Bhushan Patil
    ९ मिनिटांपूर्वी - Today in Indian History Events for March 27 27-March-1552Guru Angad Dev, Sikh Guru, passed away. 27-March-1767 Khanderao Holkar, one of the Generals in ...

Guru Angad Dev ji - History of the Sikhs

  1. www.sikh-history.com/.../gurus/nanak2...
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    Read Biography of Guru Angad Dev ji at www.sikh-history.com.

Guru Angad Dev - Sikhism Religion of the Sikh People

  1. www.sikhs.org › ... › Sikh Gurus
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    The son of a prosperous Hindu trader, Bhai Pheru, Guru Angad was an ardent devotee of the Hindu goddess Durga. Lehna, as he was known before becoming ...

Guru Angad Dev - SikhiWiki, free Sikh encyclopedia.

  1. www.sikhiwiki.org/.../Guru_Angad_De...
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    १८ एप्रि, २००७ - Guru Angad Dev ji (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਅੰਗਦ ਦੇਵ) (Thursday March 31 1504 - Saturday April 16 1552) was the second of The Ten Gurus of ...

Know about Guru Angad Dev Ji - Welcome to Guru Angad ...

  1. www.gadvasu.in/website-matter.asp?...
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    Guru Angad Dev Sahib Ji was the Second of the Ten Sikh Guru Ji'. He was born in the village of Sarae Naga in Muktsar District in Punjab, on 31 March 1504 ...

Sri Guru Angad Dev Ji - Sikh Gurus - Gateway to Sikhism

  1. https://www.allaboutsikhs.com/...gurus/...
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    JYOTI-JOT DAY: 03/29/1552. JYOTI JOT PLACE :Khandur Sahib. Guru Angad Devwas born on March 31, 1504 in a village called Harike in Ferozepur district of ...

BBC - Religions - Sikhism: Guru Angad Dev

  1. www.bbc.co.uk/.../angaddev.shtml
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    २६ ऑक्टो, २००९ - A brief oveview of the life of Guru Angad Dev, the second of the ten Gurus who founded Sikhism.

Sikhism/Sri Guru Angad Dev Ji - Wikibooks, open books for ...

  1. en.wikibooks.org/.../Sri_Guru_Angad_...
     
     या पानाचे भाषांतर करा
    Guru Angad Dev (31 March 1504 - 28 March 1552) was the second of the ten Sikh Gurus. He was born in the village of Sarae Naga in the Muktsar district of the ...

References[edit]

  1. Jump up^ Shackle, Christopher; Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh (2005). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. United Kingdom: Routledge. xiii–xiv. ISBN 0-415-26604-1.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b Cole, W. Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1978). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 18.ISBN 0-7100-8842-6.
  3. Jump up^ Sikh Missionary Center (1990). Sikh Religion. Detroit: Sikh Missionary Center. 68. ISBN 0-9625383-0-2.
  4. Jump up^ Sikh Missionary Center (1990). Sikh Religion. Detroit: Sikh Missionary Center. 69. ISBN 0-9625383-0-2.
  5. Jump up^ Sikh Missionary Center (1990). Sikh Religion. Detroit: Sikh Missionary Center. 68–69. ISBN 0-9625383-0-2.
  6. Jump up^ Sikh Missionary Center (1990). Sikh Religion. Detroit: Sikh Missionary Center. 69–70. ISBN 0-9625383-0-2.
  7. Jump up^ Cole, W. Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1978). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 19.ISBN 0-7100-8842-6.
  • Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, SIKH HISTORY (in English) in 10 volumes, especially volume 1 (published by Singh Brothers Amritsar, 2009–2011).
  • Sikh Gurus, Their Lives and Teachings, K.S. Duggal

External links[edit]

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Guru Angad.
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